Justinian II

Justinian II took the Roman throne when the Empire faced attacks from several outside enemies. He won victories against the Arabs and the Bulgars, yet his religious and social measures stirred up opposition at home. In 695 he was overthrown, and his nose was cut off. He spent a decade in exile, where he killed two would-be assassins with his bare hands. He then returned to power in a coup, aided by his former Bulgar foes, a partnership cemented when his daughter Anastasia married into their ruling house. His second reign was reportedly even harsher and was again troubled by outside threats, internal unrest and disputes over doctrine. Though he was an energetic and restless ruler whose reign brought advances in coinage, administration, finance and architecture, he was removed a second time in 711 and executed by beheading. Peter Crawford uses the full range of surviving sources and recent scholarship to revisit this colorful, turbulent career and to ask whether the emperor's harsh reputation is deserved.